Verb – Luo: all parts

SemanticsSemantics: Verb – Luo (6 – Pre-stage)

In 9.4.3.2, we noted that verbs that refer to instantaneous events (which are called achievements) are often interpreted as events that culminate when used in narrative. However, these verbs may also refer to a habit (see 6.3.3.2) or to the pre-stage of an event:

Zacchaeus is not in the physical act of distributing half of his possessions to the poor as he is speaking to Jesus. In other words, he is not in the midst of carrying out the event, which would be the event-in-progress interpretation. Nor, however, can this be interpreted as a past event or a habitual event. It must refer to a future act of giving, but the future tense is not used. The present is used here to refer to the pre-stage of the event. Zacchaeus says he is giving (present tense) to the poor because he has already decided to give. It is in this sense that the event has already begun. Thus, the Luo form can be used for events (especially instantaneous ones, i.e. achievements) that have already been decided but have not yet begun.

fromLesson 38.1: Verb – γ, κ, χ endings

SemanticsSemantics: Verb – Luo (7 – Futurate)

Luo may be used to refer to future events that are expected to occur for some reason, similar to how it can be used for events that have already been decided upon (38.1.3.2):

• (391) Future event expected to occur Μεσσίας ἔρχεται (John 4:25)
• The Messiah is coming

The Samaritan woman is not describing the Messiah as being literally on his way at this moment, nor is she saying that the Messiah has already decided to come. Rather, she knows that the Messiah is going to come at a future time. Because she expects him to come, she can use the present. Expected or scheduled eventualities like these are called futurates. This is a common use of present tense forms across languages. We are distinguishing between futurates and the pre-stage of an event based on whether the speaker has decided to perform the event (pre-stage) or is merely expecting the event for some reason (futurate). In both cases, the eventuality is expected to occur, and because of this, its occurrence is more certain than a normal future event referred to by Luso.

fromLesson 40.1: Verb – β, π, φ endings

SemanticsSemantics: Verb – Luo (8 – Generics)

Generic sentences express a regular pattern of events or states:

• (414) Generic sentence:

ἀλώπεκες φωλεοὺς ἔχουσιν (Matt 8:20)

• Foxes have holes

In this case, a generalization is made about what foxes have – they ordinarily have holes. As a generalization, generic sentences have two important properties. First, they allow for exceptions. If one fox does not have a hole, ‘foxes have holes’ is not necessarily false. Second, generic sentences often refer to kinds rather than individuals. The word ‘foxes’ does not refer to a specific fox or even a specific group of foxes. Rather, it refers to the entire class of animals that would be categorized as foxes. This is the kind interpretation of a noun, and it is common with bare plural nouns, such as we have in ἀλώπεκες ‘foxes.’ As illustrated with this example, the verbal form for generic sentences is often the Luo form.

fromLesson 42.2: Verb – λ, ρ endings

SemanticsSemantics: Verb – Luo (9 – Iterative)

Generics like Foxes have holes or habituals like Jesus eats with sinners involve multiple events or states. These sentences would not be true if only one fox had a hole or if Jesus only ate with sinners one time. Rather, these sentences describe characteristics of foxes and Jesus. We can also refer to multiple events that are not characteristics of an individual or group of individuals with the Luo form. This is called the iterative use of the present. We see it with a special class of events called semelfactives that have no duration or natural endpoint, such as the verb κρούω ‘knock’:

In this description of Peter’s escape from prison, we are not to understand Peter knocking one time and then stopping. It seems as if Peter is knocking multiple times, since verse 13 describes him starting to knock and verse 16 says he continues knocking (seemingly multiple times). This description, then, refers to multiple knocking-events, even though Peter’s knocking is not a characteristic of him (i.e. this is not a generic or habitual).

fromLesson 43.2: Verb – μ, ν endings