Verb: Perfect/Leluka

GrammarVerb – Perfect/Leluka singular

The traditional label of Leluka is the perfect, and this form does pattern with perfects in other languages. It approximates the English form have + - en, as in Jesus has gone to Galilee. In keeping with naming the forms by their morphological shape rather than a semantic label, we normally call this form Leluka, though the traditional label is occasionally used as well.

fromLesson 19.1

MorphologyVerb – Perfect/Leluka singular

• The sg endings are identical to Elusa (see 13.1.4.1) but with κ instead of σ
• The first consonant is reduplicated at the beginning of the verb followed by an ε
• -μι verbs normally behave like regular verbs, but they are already reduplicated in the Luo with an ι (e.g. δί-δωμι); this is replaced with an ε (δέδωκα)
• The following reduplication rules apply to both Leluka and -μι verbs in Luo

fromLesson 19.1

MorphologyVerb – Perfect/Leluka plural

• Remember: The Leluka endings are identical to Elusa, but with a κ instead of a σ (see 19.1.4.1)
• The 3pl ending is -κασι(ν) instead of -σαν like Elusa 3pl
• Many consonants, like γ, φ, θ, ν, χ, and some consonant pairs cause the κ in the ending to drop out
• Sometimes a vowel is added to the stem, so the κ does not drop out, e.g. μανθάνω > μεμάθηκ α

fromLesson 20.2

SemanticsVerb – Leluka (1 – Result perfect)

The Leluka form has been claimed to be “exegetically significant” in various ways. Although there is debate about how to characterize the semantics of the perfect in the linguistics literature, it is agreed on all sides that it encodes a temporal relationship. As a verbal form which encodes such a relationship, its meaning is not inherently exegetically significant. Like every other verb form, its significance depends on the eventuality being referred to and how that relates to the larger discourse. Sentences like J esus rose from the dead (past-perfective), Jesus has risen from the dead (present-perfect), and Jesus will rise from the dead (future-perfective) all encode different temporal relationships. They are all significant because the event of rising from the dead is significant. The verbal forms simply relate the event to the time of speaking and the time being discussed.

The prototypical use of the Leluka form is the result perfect reading. The result perfect refers to a state which is preceded by an event that causes the state to hold, e.g. John has arrived. In this case, there is a prior event of John being in motion, and the result state is John being at the location of the speaker. This use is also found with Leluka:

fromLesson 19.1

SemanticsVerb – Leluka (2 – Existential perfect)

In 19.1.4.2, we said that the result state reading of Leluka is associated with verbs that encode results. However, Leluka need not take verbs with result states:

• (169) State (without a result)
• ἐγὼ πεπίστευκα ὅτι σὺ εἶ ὁ χριστὸς (John 11:27)
• I have believed that you are the Christ

fromLesson 20.2

Phonologystops vs. fricatives

Consonant sounds can be divided into many different classes. Two important groups of sounds are stops (or plosives) and fricatives (or spirants). Stops are sounds where the airflow completely stops when making the sound, so the sound itself cannot be continually produced. These are sounds like ‘t’ from τ. Fricatives, on the other hand, can be continually produced, and the airflow is restricted but is not completely stopped. We see this in a sound like ‘th’ from θ. Sounds from these classes sometimes behave differently in Greek.

fromLesson 19.1